Prevocalic t-glottaling

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.font200[Prevocalic t-glottaling across word boundaries in Midland American English]

.font120[Kamil Kaźmierski.ipa[/ˌkamil kaʑˈmjɛrski/]<br>
Faculty of English at AMU in Poznań]

Phon-phon for phun :: October 5th, 2020

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# T-glottaling in American English

<div class="tabwid"><style>.cl-5ee00d82{}.cl-5ed31f46{font-family:'Arial';font-size:20pt;font-weight:bold;font-style:normal;text-decoration:none;color:rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);background-color:transparent;}.cl-5ed31f78{font-family:'Arial';font-size:20pt;font-weight:normal;font-style:normal;text-decoration:none;color:rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);background-color:transparent;}.cl-5ed878c4{margin:0;text-align:left;border-bottom: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-top: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-left: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-right: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);padding-bottom:5pt;padding-top:5pt;padding-left:5pt;padding-right:5pt;line-height: 1;background-color:transparent;}.cl-5ed89e26{width:1.875in;background-color:transparent;vertical-align: middle;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid rgba(102, 102, 102, 1.00);border-top: 1.5pt solid rgba(102, 102, 102, 1.00);border-left: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-right: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 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1.00);margin-bottom:0;margin-top:0;margin-left:0;margin-right:0;}.cl-5ed89e4f{width:1.968in;background-color:transparent;vertical-align: middle;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid rgba(102, 102, 102, 1.00);border-top: 0.75pt solid rgba(102, 102, 102, 1.00);border-left: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-right: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);margin-bottom:0;margin-top:0;margin-left:0;margin-right:0;}.cl-5ed89e50{width:9.363in;background-color:transparent;vertical-align: middle;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid rgba(102, 102, 102, 1.00);border-top: 0.75pt solid rgba(102, 102, 102, 1.00);border-left: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-right: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);margin-bottom:0;margin-top:0;margin-left:0;margin-right:0;}</style><table data-quarto-disable-processing='true' class='cl-5ee00d82'><thead><tr style="overflow-wrap:break-word;"><th class="cl-5ed89e26"><p class="cl-5ed878c4"><span class="cl-5ed31f46">Level</span></p></th><th class="cl-5ed89e30"><p class="cl-5ed878c4"><span class="cl-5ed31f46">Context</span></p></th><th class="cl-5ed89e31"><p class="cl-5ed878c4"><span class="cl-5ed31f46">Examples</span></p></th><th class="cl-5ed89e3a"><p class="cl-5ed878c4"><span class="cl-5ed31f46">Source</span></p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr style="overflow-wrap:break-word;"><td  rowspan="2"class="cl-5ed89e3b"><p class="cl-5ed878c4"><span class="cl-5ed31f78">Within words</span></p></td><td class="cl-5ed89e3c"><p class="cl-5ed878c4"><span class="cl-5ed31f78">before nasals</span></p></td><td class="cl-5ed89e44"><p class="cl-5ed878c4"><span class="cl-5ed31f78">portent, kitten</span></p></td><td class="cl-5ed89e45"><p class="cl-5ed878c4"><span class="cl-5ed31f78">Trager (1942), Zue &amp; Laferriere (1976), Eddington &amp; Brown (Forthcoming)</span></p></td></tr><tr style="overflow-wrap:break-word;"><td class="cl-5ed89e4e"><p class="cl-5ed878c4"><span class="cl-5ed31f78">syllable-final</span></p></td><td class="cl-5ed89e4f"><p class="cl-5ed878c4"><span class="cl-5ed31f78">cat, sent, belt</span></p></td><td class="cl-5ed89e50"><p class="cl-5ed878c4"><span class="cl-5ed31f78">Selkirk (1972)</span></p></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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.footnote[.ref[
Kaźmierski, K, Wojtkowiak, E, Baumann, A. 2016. "Coalescent assimilation across word boundaries in American English and in Polish English." *Research in Language* 14(3): 235-262. DOI: 10.1515/rela-2016-0012
]]

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# T-glottaling in American English

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1.00);margin-bottom:0;margin-top:0;margin-left:0;margin-right:0;}</style><table data-quarto-disable-processing='true' class='cl-5f8dceea'><thead><tr style="overflow-wrap:break-word;"><th class="cl-5f856a52"><p class="cl-5f852c22"><span class="cl-5f7f6102">Level</span></p></th><th class="cl-5f856a5c"><p class="cl-5f852c22"><span class="cl-5f7f6102">Context</span></p></th><th class="cl-5f856a5d"><p class="cl-5f852c22"><span class="cl-5f7f6102">Examples</span></p></th><th class="cl-5f856a66"><p class="cl-5f852c22"><span class="cl-5f7f6102">Source</span></p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr style="overflow-wrap:break-word;"><td  rowspan="2"class="cl-5f856a67"><p class="cl-5f852c22"><span class="cl-5f7f6120">Within words</span></p></td><td class="cl-5f856a70"><p class="cl-5f852c22"><span class="cl-5f7f6120">before nasals</span></p></td><td class="cl-5f856a71"><p class="cl-5f852c22"><span class="cl-5f7f6120">portent, kitten</span></p></td><td class="cl-5f856a7a"><p class="cl-5f852c22"><span class="cl-5f7f6120">Trager (1942), Zue &amp; Laferriere (1976), Eddington &amp; Brown (Forthcoming)</span></p></td></tr><tr style="overflow-wrap:break-word;"><td class="cl-5f856a84"><p class="cl-5f852c22"><span class="cl-5f7f6120">syllable-final</span></p></td><td class="cl-5f856a85"><p class="cl-5f852c22"><span class="cl-5f7f6120">cat, sent, belt</span></p></td><td class="cl-5f856a8e"><p class="cl-5f852c22"><span class="cl-5f7f6120">Selkirk (1972)</span></p></td></tr><tr style="overflow-wrap:break-word;"><td  rowspan="2"class="cl-5f856a8f"><p class="cl-5f852c22"><span class="cl-5f7f6120">Across words</span></p></td><td class="cl-5f856a84"><p class="cl-5f852c22"><span class="cl-5f7f6120">before sonorants</span></p></td><td class="cl-5f856a85"><p class="cl-5f852c22"><span class="cl-5f7f6120">hat rack, about you</span></p></td><td class="cl-5f856a8e"><p class="cl-5f852c22"><span class="cl-5f7f6120">Pierrehumbert (1994), Kaźmierski, Wojtkowiak &amp; Baumann (2016)</span></p></td></tr><tr style="overflow-wrap:break-word;"><td class="cl-5f856a98"><p class="cl-5f852c22"><span class="cl-5f7f6120">before plosives</span></p></td><td class="cl-5f856a99"><p class="cl-5f852c22"><span class="cl-5f7f6120">beet counter</span></p></td><td class="cl-5f856aa2"><p class="cl-5f852c22"><span class="cl-5f7f6120">Huffman (2005)</span></p></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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##  *what I saw*

## .ipa[[wʌ**ɾ**aɪsɑː]] cf. .ipa[[wɑːɾɚ]] *water*

## .ipa[[wʌ**ɾ**aɪsɑː]] ~ .ipa[[wʌ**ʔ**aɪsɑː]]

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<img src="index_files/figure-html/unnamed-chunk-4-1.png" width="90%" height="90%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.footnote[.ref[
Eddington, D and C Channer. 2010. “American English has go.ipa[ʔ] a lo.ipa[ʔ] of glottal stops: Social diffusion and linguistic motivation.” *American Speech* 85(3): 338-351.
]]

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# Why is [ʔ] encroaching on [ɾ] territory?

### <svg aria-hidden="true" role="img" viewBox="0 0 320 512" style="height:1em;width:0.62em;vertical-align:-0.125em;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;font-size:inherit;fill:currentColor;overflow:visible;position:relative;"><path d="M278.6 233.4c12.5 12.5 12.5 32.8 0 45.3l-160 160c-12.5 12.5-32.8 12.5-45.3 0s-12.5-32.8 0-45.3L210.7 256 73.4 118.6c-12.5-12.5-12.5-32.8 0-45.3s32.8-12.5 45.3 0l160 160z"/></svg> If it's (almost) always *a*.ipa[[ɾ]]*om*, *ci*.ipa[[ɾ]]*y*, why do we ever get *wha*.ipa[[ʔ]] *I* ?

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## **Hypothesis**: Frequent occurrence, and glottaling, before consonants influences the production of words even in before vowels.

### <svg aria-hidden="true" role="img" viewBox="0 0 320 512" style="height:1em;width:0.62em;vertical-align:-0.125em;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;font-size:inherit;fill:currentColor;overflow:visible;position:relative;"><path d="M278.6 233.4c12.5 12.5 12.5 32.8 0 45.3l-160 160c-12.5 12.5-32.8 12.5-45.3 0s-12.5-32.8 0-45.3L210.7 256 73.4 118.6c-12.5-12.5-12.5-32.8 0-45.3s32.8-12.5 45.3 0l160 160z"/></svg> *wha*.ipa[[ʔ]] *does*, *wha*.ipa[[ʔ]] *was*, *wha*.ipa[[ʔ]] *we*, *wha*.ipa[[ʔ]] *kind*, *wha*.ipa[[ʔ]] *would* → *wha*[ʔ] *I*

## **Prediction**: *t*-final words often followed by consonants → more likely to undergo *t*-glottaling.

## **Result**: Eddington & Channer (2010) confirm it, but there were limitations

.footnote[.ref[
Eddington, D and C Channer. 2010. “American English has go.ipa[ʔ] a lo.ipa[ʔ] of glottal stops: Social diffusion and linguistic motivation.” *American Speech* 85(3): 338-351.
]]

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# My study: Method

- Data: Buckeye .ref[(Pitt et al. 2007)]
    - 40 speakers, stratified for age (younger, older) and gender from Columbus, OH
    - Midland (Labov, Ash & Boberg 2006) dialect area
    - Hand-corrected allophonic transcriptions

- Analysis: 
    - Corpus queerying with Labb-CAT (Fromont & Hay 2012)
    - 7,317 `Vt#V` bigrams retrieved (no pause in between)
    - Mixed-effects logistic regression with *lme4* (Bates et al. 2015) in <svg aria-hidden="true" role="img" viewBox="0 0 581 512" style="height:1em;width:1.13em;vertical-align:-0.125em;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;font-size:inherit;fill:#76232F;overflow:visible;position:relative;"><path d="M581 226.6C581 119.1 450.9 32 290.5 32S0 119.1 0 226.6C0 322.4 103.3 402 239.4 418.1V480h99.1v-61.5c24.3-2.7 47.6-7.4 69.4-13.9L448 480h112l-67.4-113.7c54.5-35.4 88.4-84.9 88.4-139.7zm-466.8 14.5c0-73.5 98.9-133 220.8-133s211.9 40.7 211.9 133c0 50.1-26.5 85-70.3 106.4-2.4-1.6-4.7-2.9-6.4-3.7-10.2-5.2-27.8-10.5-27.8-10.5s86.6-6.4 86.6-92.7-90.6-87.9-90.6-87.9h-199V361c-74.1-21.5-125.2-67.1-125.2-119.9zm225.1 38.3v-55.6c57.8 0 87.8-6.8 87.8 27.3 0 36.5-38.2 28.3-87.8 28.3zm-.9 72.5H365c10.8 0 18.9 11.7 24 19.2-16.1 1.9-33 2.8-50.6 2.9v-22.1z"/></svg>  (R Core Team 2020)

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# Ex. 1: Intervocalic /t/ as a glottal stop

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# Ex. 2: Intervocalic /t/ as an 'incomplete' glottal stop

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# Data - overview

<div class="tabwid"><style>.cl-60183792{}.cl-6008a192{font-family:'Arial';font-size:30pt;font-weight:normal;font-style:normal;text-decoration:none;color:rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);background-color:transparent;}.cl-600d6dee{margin:0;text-align:left;border-bottom: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-top: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-left: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-right: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);padding-bottom:5pt;padding-top:5pt;padding-left:5pt;padding-right:5pt;line-height: 1;background-color:transparent;}.cl-600d8b9e{width:3.273in;background-color:transparent;vertical-align: middle;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid rgba(102, 102, 102, 1.00);border-top: 1.5pt solid rgba(102, 102, 102, 1.00);border-left: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-right: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);margin-bottom:0;margin-top:0;margin-left:0;margin-right:0;}.cl-600d8ba8{width:6.007in;background-color:transparent;vertical-align: middle;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid rgba(102, 102, 102, 1.00);border-top: 1.5pt solid rgba(102, 102, 102, 1.00);border-left: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-right: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);margin-bottom:0;margin-top:0;margin-left:0;margin-right:0;}.cl-600d8bb2{width:2.903in;background-color:transparent;vertical-align: middle;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid rgba(102, 102, 102, 1.00);border-top: 1.5pt solid rgba(102, 102, 102, 1.00);border-left: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-right: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);margin-bottom:0;margin-top:0;margin-left:0;margin-right:0;}.cl-600d8bb3{width:3.273in;background-color:transparent;vertical-align: middle;border-bottom: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-top: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-left: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-right: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);margin-bottom:0;margin-top:0;margin-left:0;margin-right:0;}.cl-600d8bb4{width:6.007in;background-color:transparent;vertical-align: middle;border-bottom: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-top: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-left: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-right: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);margin-bottom:0;margin-top:0;margin-left:0;margin-right:0;}.cl-600d8bbc{width:2.903in;background-color:transparent;vertical-align: middle;border-bottom: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-top: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-left: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-right: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);margin-bottom:0;margin-top:0;margin-left:0;margin-right:0;}.cl-600d8bbd{width:3.273in;background-color:transparent;vertical-align: middle;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid rgba(102, 102, 102, 1.00);border-top: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-left: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-right: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);margin-bottom:0;margin-top:0;margin-left:0;margin-right:0;}.cl-600d8bc6{width:6.007in;background-color:transparent;vertical-align: middle;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid rgba(102, 102, 102, 1.00);border-top: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-left: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-right: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);margin-bottom:0;margin-top:0;margin-left:0;margin-right:0;}.cl-600d8bc7{width:2.903in;background-color:transparent;vertical-align: middle;border-bottom: 1.5pt solid rgba(102, 102, 102, 1.00);border-top: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-left: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);border-right: 0 solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 1.00);margin-bottom:0;margin-top:0;margin-left:0;margin-right:0;}</style><table data-quarto-disable-processing='true' class='cl-60183792'><thead><tr style="overflow-wrap:break-word;"><th class="cl-600d8b9e"><p class="cl-600d6dee"><span class="cl-6008a192">Realization of /t/</span></p></th><th class="cl-600d8ba8"><p class="cl-600d6dee"><span class="cl-6008a192">Eddington and Channer (2010)</span></p></th><th class="cl-600d8bb2"><p class="cl-600d6dee"><span class="cl-6008a192">Buckeye</span></p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr style="overflow-wrap:break-word;"><td class="cl-600d8bb3"><p class="cl-600d6dee"><span class="cl-6008a192">Flapping</span></p></td><td class="cl-600d8bb4"><p class="cl-600d6dee"><span class="cl-6008a192">656 (59.6%)</span></p></td><td class="cl-600d8bbc"><p class="cl-600d6dee"><span class="cl-6008a192">4,669 (63.8%)</span></p></td></tr><tr style="overflow-wrap:break-word;"><td class="cl-600d8bb3"><p class="cl-600d6dee"><span class="cl-6008a192">Glottaling</span></p></td><td class="cl-600d8bb4"><p class="cl-600d6dee"><span class="cl-6008a192">262 (23.8%)</span></p></td><td class="cl-600d8bbc"><p class="cl-600d6dee"><span class="cl-6008a192">1,134 (15.5%)</span></p></td></tr><tr style="overflow-wrap:break-word;"><td class="cl-600d8bb3"><p class="cl-600d6dee"><span class="cl-6008a192">No process</span></p></td><td class="cl-600d8bb4"><p class="cl-600d6dee"><span class="cl-6008a192">110 (10%)</span></p></td><td class="cl-600d8bbc"><p class="cl-600d6dee"><span class="cl-6008a192">763 (10.4%)</span></p></td></tr><tr style="overflow-wrap:break-word;"><td class="cl-600d8bbd"><p class="cl-600d6dee"><span class="cl-6008a192">Deletion</span></p></td><td class="cl-600d8bc6"><p class="cl-600d6dee"><span class="cl-6008a192">73 (6.6%)</span></p></td><td class="cl-600d8bc7"><p class="cl-600d6dee"><span class="cl-6008a192">751 (10.3%)</span></p></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

---
# Articulation rate: Buckeye vs. Santa Barbara

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# *t*-glottaling; gender by age effect

```
## Warning: Using `size` aesthetic for lines was deprecated in ggplot2 3.4.0.
## ℹ Please use `linewidth` instead.
```

---
# Test variable : Consonantal proportion

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# Model

```r
*glottaled ~ consonantal_proportion +
            rate_deviation  + 
            word2_frontness + word2_stress + bigram_frequency + 
            gender * age + 
            (1 | word1) +
            (1 + consonantal_proportion | speaker)
```

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# *t*-glottaling; Contextual frequency effect

.footnote[.ref[**Kaźmierski, K**. 2020. "Prevocalic t-glottaling across word boundaries in Midland American English." *Laboratory Phonology: Journal of the Association for Laboratory Phonology* 11(1): 13, 1-23. DOI: 10.5334/labphon.271
]]

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# Conclusion

- Frequent occurrence before consonants enriches the pool of exemplars with .ipa[[ʔ]]

- During production, even before vowels, the phoneme .ipa[/t/] draws on these exemplars

- The more frequent the occurrence before consonants, the higher the likelihood the the outcome will be .ipa[[ʔ]]

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# Thank you!

## T-glottaling may be becoming more frequent, and it's driven by a contextual frequency effect

This research was supported by National Science Center (Poland) grant no. UMO-2017/26/D/HS2/00027